Which 14th-century historian laid the foundations of sociology and historiography in the Islamic world?

• A. Al-Ghazali
• B. Ibn Khaldun
• C. Ibn Sina
• D. Al-Tabari

Answer: (B)

Ibn Khaldun stands out because in the 14th century he develops a systematic approach to both society and history that others before him did not formalize in the Islamic world. In the Muqaddimah, he treats social group formation, cohesion, and the economic and environmental factors shaping states as interconnected processes, laying the groundwork for sociology as a way to explain how societies rise, endure, and decline. He also pioneers a method for historiography that goes beyond chronicling rulers and events; he emphasizes critical use of sources, seeks general patterns and laws behind historical change, and ties those patterns to social and economic forces. This combination—a coherent theory of social dynamics plus a disciplined, evidence-based approach to writing history—constitutes the foundational contribution in this context. Other figures listed belong to earlier periods or different fields (theology, medicine/philosophy, or traditional chronicle-writing) and do not establish this dual foundation in the 14th century.